Janet Hyde

http://www.apa.org/research/action/difference.aspx - Janet Hyde findings

Pamela Fishman (1983) - gender theory

Fishman was responsible for the dominance model a year after Cheshire's study. she focused on tag questions, listening to 52 hours of pre-recorded conversations between young American couples. She agreed with Lakoff finding about how women use tag questions more often, (4 times more). However, the conclusion she drew was very different to Lakoff. She argued that questions are used by females to start conversation and to continue dialogue, she calls this 'conversational shitwork'. Fishman accepts this is down to male dominace (much like Tannen and her difference model the 'Status Vs Support' difference in particular). Males are reluctant to do this 'shitwork' due to their dominant role. This links to the 'difference model' by Deborah Tannen.

Jenny Cheshire (1982) - gender theory

In 1982 another renowned study was published. Cheshire looked specifically at certain grammatical variations in the speech of young children. She considered the frequency of the children using:

• non-standard -s (she calls me...)
• non-standard has (you has to...)
• non-standard was (you was...)
• multiple negation
• non-standard never
• non-standard what (are you the boys what hit...)
• non-standard do (she do...)
• non-standard come (i come here yesterday...)
• use of ain't.

Overall, boys used non-standard forms more frequently than girls did. Cheshire concluded that 'variation is controlled by both social and linguistic factors'. 

In boys' speech, variation is governed by norms that are central to the vernacular culture, these are transmitted through the peer group. Variation in the girls' speech appears to be a more personal process, and less rigidly controlled by vernacular norms'. Can we therefore conclude that our language varies from a young age? This is a very interesting idea and leads us to ask 'why?' and 'how?' why is our language different from such a young age? How does society reinforce such varieties.

  

Robin Lakoff (1975) - gender theory

Robin Lakoff created a list of female traits of language in 1975:

1. Hedges: phrases like 'sort of', 'kind of', or 'it seems like'.
2. Empty adjectives: 'diving', 'adorable', 'gorgeous'
3. Super-polite forms: 'would you mind if...', 'is it okay if...'
4. Apologise more: 'i'm sorry, but i think that...'
5. Speak less frequently
6. Avoid course language or expletives.
7. Tag questions: 'you dont mind eating that do you?'
8. Hyper-correct grammar and pronuncication: use of prestige grammar and clear articulation .
9. Indirect requests: 'i'm so thristy' - really asking for a drink.
10. Speak in italics: use tone to emphasis certain words, e.g. 'so', very', 'quite'.

The main critique to Robin Lakoff and her theory is that it cannot be applied to medern times as this was 40 years ago and is outdated and roled of women have changed and are now more equal. She also used phrases such as 'many men' in her findings which shows a lack off statistical evidence to back up her theory.

Deborah Tannen (1990) - gender theory

Deborah Tannen -
Tannen was originally a student of Robin Lakoff and her book 'you just don't understand' was published in 1990. She is an advocate of the difference model (theory suggesting men and women do speak differently). Tannen represents male and female language use in a series of six contrasts to show this difference.
Status Vs Support - men use language to show power and dominance in conversation. women are more likely to support and agree with others in the conversation.
Independence Vs Intimacy - men will use language to show they do not rely on others. women would prefer to use language to maintain closeness with each other and connect with others.
Advice vs Understanding - men will offer solutions to a problem through their language. Women will show empathy and understanding to a given situation.
Information Vs Feelings - men are more likely to be factual in their speech than women. Women will use language that bis less factual and stem from a more emotional viewpoint.
Orders Vs Proposals - in conversation, men are more likely to be more direct in their language using imperatives to command others. Women are more likely to use more suggesting language in oppose to commanding e.g. man - 'close that window it is cold' (direct imperative), women - 'isn't it cold in here' (therefore suggesting she wants the window closed  but uses an interrogative in oppose to a imperative).
Conflict Vs Compromise -  Men are more likely to use language to argue a point. women are more likely to use language avoid such conflict and are far more likely to negotiate with others to try and find a solutions or compromise.